CHAPTER 4: THE LAW SCHOOL ADMISSIONS TEST

INTRODUCTION

As mentioned in Chapter 2, the LSAT is a standardized test that is administered by the Law School Admissions Council (LSAC) and is the primary test for law school admission. However since 2021, law schools have increasingly accepted the GRE and the GMAT in lieu of the LSAT. Furthermore, the ABA indicated in 2023 that standardized tests may no longer be required by 2025. The rest of this Chapter proceeds under the assumption that the LSAT will remain a central part of admissions for the time being.

The test is meant to “measure skills that are considered essential for success in law school: the reading and comprehension of complex texts with accuracy and insight; the organization and management of information and the ability to draw reasonable inferences from it; the ability to think critically; and the analysis and evaluation of the reasoning and arguments of others.

The LSAT is scored on a curve from 120 to 180 points. A score of 180 will put you in the 99.9th percentile, while a score of 170 will put in the 98th percentile. This means that only 2% of test takers will score above

170. The average score on the test is around 150, but this varies by test sitting. The upside of a “curved exam” is that it universalizes difficulty– if you found a question difficult, it is likely that others also found it difficult. The same is true for the test as a whole.

To attend a T14 law school, you’ll generally want an LSAT score above 162 (at or above 170 for the top five schools). This already factors in the advantage you have as a veteran applicant; most people need to score above a 165 for a T14. Even if you are looking primarily at less elite schools, for which the median LSAT scores are lower, you should still try to get the best score you can. A higher score can open up opportunities you might not have considered before and/or make you more competitive for merit-based scholarships.

It is important to understand that the LSAT is NOT an intelligence test. Doing well requires both natural aptitude and technique, and the more you study, and the smarter you study, the better you will do. The necessary skills will come naturally to a small group of people, but the vast majority of applicants will need to dedicate a significant amount of time to learning and practicing the skills. This means that you must give yourself plenty of time to study– we recommend at least six months– in order to do as well as possible. We'll discuss strategies for preparing later on in the chapter.

Once you achieve consistency in your practice tests and feel prepared, you can go to the LSAC website and register for an upcoming test.

PARTS OF THE TEST

The LSAT is completed using an electronic tablet and consists of four 35-minute multiple choice sections, broken into three types– reading comprehension, logical reasoning, and analytical reasoning. You will have four scored sections– one reading comprehension, one analytical reasoning, and one logical reasoning– as well as one un-scored experimental section that is used to test new questions for future exams (you won’t know which section is the experimental one when you take the test). There is also a 35-minute writing section taken on your own time at home, which, while un-scored, is sent to the schools to which you are applying as a writing sample and must be completed before your scores can be sent.

READING COMPREHENSION

The Reading Comprehension section of the test measures your ability to read and analyze complex material. The section contains four sets of reading questions, each with an associated passage or passages. The passages can be about any number of subjects, ranging from humanities and social sciences to biology and physics. The subjects do not have to be related to the law and there is no requirement for any prior knowledge of the subject matter (nor would it help). According to LSAC, the “selections are densely written, use high-level vocabulary, and contain sophisticated argument or complex rhetorical structure.” You can find more information about the Reading Comprehension section as well as sample questions at the LSAC website here.

After each passage, there will be a set of 5-8 corresponding questions that ask you to analyze relationships among various parts of the reading and draw inferences and conclusions based on them. The questions may ask about the following characteristics:

▪ The main idea or primary purpose

▪ Information that is explicitly stated

▪ Information or ideas that can be inferred

▪ The meaning or purpose of words or phrases as used in context

▪ The organization or structure

▪ The application of information in the selection

▪ Principles that function in the selection

▪ Analogies to claims or arguments in the selection

▪ The authors attitude as revealed in the tone of the passage

▪ The impact of new information on claims or arguments in the passage

Sample Passage (from LSAC website):

The painter Roy Lichtenstein helped to define pop art — the movement that incorporated commonplace objects and commercial-art techniques into paintings — by paraphrasing the style of comic books in his work. His merger of a popular genre with the forms and intentions of fine art generated a complex result: while poking fun at the pretensions of the art world, Lichtenstein's work also managed to convey a seriousness of theme that enabled it to transcend mere parody.

That Lichtenstein's images were fine art was at first difficult to see, because, with their word balloons and highly stylized figures, they looked like nothing more than the comic book panels from which they were copied. Standard art history holds that pop art emerged as an impersonal alternative to the histrionics of abstract expressionism, a movement in which painters conveyed their private attitudes and emotions using nonrepresentational techniques. The truth is that by the time pop art first appeared in the early 1960s, abstract expressionism had already lost much of its force. Pop art painters weren't quarreling with the powerful early abstract expressionist work of the late 1940s but with a second generation of abstract expressionists whose work seemed airy, high-minded, and overly lyrical. Pop art paintings were full of simple black lines and large areas of primary color. Lichtenstein's work was part of a general rebellion against the fading emotional power of abstract expressionism, rather than an aloof attempt to ignore it.

But if rebellion against previous art by means of the careful imitation of a popular genre were all that characterized Lichtenstein's work, it would possess only the reflective power that parodies have in relation to their subjects. Beneath its cartoonish methods, his work displayed an impulse toward realism, an urge to say that what was missing from contemporary painting was the depiction of contemporary life. The stilted romances and war stories portrayed in the comic books on which he based his canvases, the stylized automobiles, hot dogs, and table lamps that appeared in his pictures, were reflections of the culture Lichtenstein inhabited. But, in contrast to some pop art, Lichtenstein's work exuded not a jaded cynicism about consumer culture, but a kind of deliberate naivete, intended as a response to the excess of sophistication he observed not only in the later abstract expressionists but in some other pop artists. With the comics — typically the domain of youth and innocence — as his reference point, a nostalgia fills his paintings that gives them, for all their surface bravado, an inner sweetness. His persistent use of comic-art conventions demonstrates a faith in reconciliation, not only between cartoons and fine art, but between parody and true feeling.

Which one of the following best captures the author's attitude toward Lichtenstein's work?

(a) Enthusiasm for its more rebellious aspects

(b) Respect for its successful parody of youth and innocence

(a) Pleasure in its blatant rejection of abstract expressionism

(a) Admiration for its subtle critique of contemporary culture

(a) Appreciation for its ability to incorporate both realism and naivete

Answer and Explanation

This question requires the test taker to understand the attitude the author of the passage displays toward Lichtenstein’s work.

The correct response is (E). Response (E) most accurately and completely captures the author’s attitude. First, the author’s appreciation for Lichtenstein’s art is indicated by way of contrast with the way in which the author describes what Lichtenstein’s art is not. For example, the author asserts that Lichtenstein’s work “transcended mere parody,” and that unlike other pop art, it did not display a “jaded cynicism.” Similarly, the author holds that there is more to Lichtenstein’s work than “the reflective power that parodies possess in relation to their subjects.” Moreover, the author’s appreciation is reflected in several positive statements regarding Lichtenstein’s work. The author’s appreciation for Lichtenstein’s realism is indicated by the author’s statement that “Beneath its cartoonish methods, his work displayed an impulse toward realism, an urge to say that what was missing from contemporary painting was the depiction of contemporary life.” That the author also appreciates Lichtenstein’s naivete is demonstrated in this sentence: “Lichtenstein’s work exuded not a jaded cynicism about consumer culture, but a kind of deliberate naivete ...” This idea is further expanded in the next sentence, which says that “for all their surface bravado,” Lichtenstein’s paintings possess “an inner sweetness.” It is important to note that these evaluations appear in the last paragraph and form part of the author’s conclusion about the importance of Lichtenstein’s art.

LOGICAL REASONING

Logical Reasoning questions test your ability to analyze, critically evaluate, and complete arguments. Each logical reasoning question will contain a short passage that will require you to complete some form of logical analysis. According to LSAC, “The questions are designed to assess a wide range of skills involved in thinking critically, with an emphasis on skills that are central to legal reasoning.” These skills include:

▪ Recognizing the parts of an argument and their relationships

▪ Recognizing similarities and differences between patterns of reasoning

▪ Drawing well-supported conclusions

▪ Reasoning by analogy

▪ Recognizing misunderstandings or points of disagreement

▪ Determining how additional evidence affects an argument

▪ Detecting assumptions made by particular arguments

▪ Identifying and applying principles or rules

▪ Identifying flaws in arguments

▪ Identifying explanations

The questions in the logical reasoning section contain arguments similar to those used in law school. However, the content of the arguments is not legally based and does not require any prior knowledge beyond a university-level understanding of premises, assumptions and conclusions.

Sample Question (from LSAC website):

Laird: Pure research provides us with new technologies that contribute to saving lives. Even more worthwhile than this, however, is its role in expanding our knowledge and providing new, unexplored ideas.

Kim: Your priorities are mistaken. Saving lives is what counts most of all. Without pure research, medicine would not be as advanced as it is.

Laird and Kim disagree on whether pure research

(a) Derives its significance in part from its providing new technologies

(b) Expands the boundaries of our knowledge of medicine

(a) Should have the saving of human lives as an important goal

(a) Has its most valuable achievements in medical applications

(a) Has any value apart from its role in providing new technologies to save lives

Answer and Explanation

This question asks you to identify the point on which Laird and Kim disagree with respect to pure research. Laird identifies two contributions of pure research: its medical applications (“technologies that contribute to saving lives”) and its role in expanding knowledge and providing new ideas. Of these, Laird considers the second contribution to be more worthwhile. Kim, on the other hand, maintains that “Saving lives is what counts most of all.” Since pure research saves lives through medical applications, Kim disagrees with Laird about whether pure research has its most valuable achievements in medical applications. The correct response, therefore, is (D).

ANALYTICAL REASONING

The Analytical Reasoning section is often referred to as the “games section.” The “games” often give applicants the most trouble, since they are likely different from any kind of standardized test question previously faced. On the flip side, most students also see the biggest improvements in their scores on this section, once they understand how to approach them.

According to LSAC, the analytical reasoning questions are designed to assess your ability to consider a group of facts or rules, and then determine what could or must be true based on those facts or rules. In each game, you will be asked to make deductions about people, places or things; the content will be unrelated to the law. The games section will contain four games each with 5-8 associated questions.

For some people, the games will just click. For most people, the games are challenging and not necessarily intuitive. If you are struggling with the games, we strongly suggest you get some kind of tutoring or take a professional LSAT prep course. A tutor or prep course will teach you the proper way to set up the games, which will make them much easier to solve. Once you get the hang of it, you’ll be able to answer more questions correctly and in less time.

Sample Game (from LSAC website):

A university library budget committee must reduce exactly five of eight areas of expenditure — G, L, M, N, P, R, S, and W — in accordance with the following conditions:

If both G and S are reduced, W is also reduced. If N is reduced, neither R nor S is reduced.

If P is reduced, L is not reduced.

Of the three areas L, M, and R, exactly two are reduced.

If both M and R are reduced, which one of the following is a pair of areas neither of which could be reduced?

(a) G, L

(b) G, N

(c) L, N

(d) L, P

(e) P, S

Answer and Explanation

This question concerns a committee’s decision about which five of eight areas of expenditure to reduce. The question requires you to suppose that M and R are among the areas that are to be reduced, and then to determine which pair of areas could not also be among the five areas that are reduced.

The fourth condition given in the passage on which this question is based requires that exactly two of M, R, and L are reduced. Since the question asks us to suppose that both M and R are reduced, we know that L must not be reduced:

Reduced: M, R

Not reduced: L

The second condition requires that if N is reduced, neither R nor S is reduced. So N and R cannot both be reduced. Here, since R is reduced, we know that N cannot be. Thus, adding this to what we’ve determined so far, we know that L and N are a pair of areas that cannot both be reduced if both M and R are reduced:

Reduced: M, R

Not reduced: L, N

Answer choice (C) is therefore the correct answer, and you are done.

PREPARING FOR THE LSAT

Hopefully it’s obvious by now that the LSAT requires a LOT of preparation. Depending on your natural test- taking ability, diligence, and the amount of study time you have available, we recommend giving yourself at least 6 months (or more depending on how much you want to improve). You should also give yourself plenty of buffer time between the first time you take the test and your application deadline to make sure you can re-take the test if you need to. We suggest you schedule a test date at least four months from the day you start studying– this will give you a goal to strive for and an incentive to start studying diligently.

As you start preparing, your first step should be a trip to the LSAC website to look through their page on LSAT prep materials. You can also get several free practice tests from the LSAC website or via Khan Academy, which is a tailored, free prep course provided by LSAC. We recommend you start by taking at least one (if not 2-3) full length practice tests under timed conditions, in order to establish your baseline. This will give you a good idea of where you stand in terms of overall score, how much time you may need to dedicate to improvement, and which areas you need to focus on most. From there, you can determine which method of preparation is best for you.

In addition to self-studying, many applicants will get tutoring for specific sections or take a formal prep course (either online or in person) to help them maximize their performance on the test. We generally recommend doing so, particularly if you are interested in a T14 school and need to significantly increase your score in order to be competitive. Service to School has negotiated discounts with good test prep companies, and there are even some free resources out there, so be sure to talk to your S2S ambassadors about your options.

If a prep course is not an option for some reason and you decide to self-study, we recommend using the PowerScore Bibles and taking timed, full-length practice tests at regular intervals to check your progress. LSAC publishes its old exams individually and in books of 10, which you can buy either as ebooks or in hard copy from various retailers. Based on your progress on the full-length practice tests, you can then tailor your study plan to focus on your areas of weakness (certain sections, types of questions, timing, etc.).

Everybody has their own study habits and test-taking strategies. What works for you might not work for someone else, and vice versa. That said, here are a couple of general tips for studying and taking the LSAT.

Train Like You Fight. This is a common adage in the military. The same holds true for taking the LSAT. You need to practice under realistic conditions as much as possible, which means taking plenty of full-length practice tests under time pressure. It's critical that you learn not only how to answer the questions, but how to do so within the time constraints of the test. However you choose to study during the week, we recommend taking a timed, full-length practice test every weekend. Then carefully analyze your results after each test and make sure you understand what you missed and why. Most prep courses endorse “blind review” strategies, in which a test taker thoroughly reviews and re-answers each question he or she was unsure about in an untimed environment prior to checking the correct answer.

Find a Way To Relax. The LSAT can be a stressful experience, especially as test day draws near. You need to develop a routine to help you relax. Whether it’s working out early in the morning every day or taking a yoga class the night before each practice test, develop a strategy so you can sleep easily the night before the test.

CANCELING A SCORE AND MULTIPLE SCORES

The question may come up– what should you do if you screw up or simply think you didn't perform your best on test day?

First, LSAC implemented "Score Preview" in 2022. Score Preview allows you to see your test score when it is released and for six days afterwards, you have the option of canceling your score. LSAC provides clear guidance for how to do so on its website. If you cancel your score, admissions officers will see that you took the test and canceled it, but they will not see what score you received.

It will not hurt you if you cancel a score (once). Admissions officers understand that everyone has a bad day now and then, or that something may have happened to you during the test. However, if you cancel more than once, you risk it appearing like you can’t handle the pressure of the exam, which will likely hurt your candidacy. You should not necessarily cancel your score just because your score was not your dream score. Ultimately, if you know with out a doubt that you can improve your score, you can cancel your score. But only one time– after that, plan on taking the test for keeps. Remember that a cancelled score still counts against your annual cycle test limit.

So what if you didn't perform as well as you had hoped? The short answer is take the test again. Schools will see the results from all tests you have taken in the past five years, but they mostly care about your top score because that is the score that is reported to US News and World Report Rankings. They understand that it takes practice to do well and appreciate the determination and diligence required to make progress. There’s no harm in trying again if you’re confident you can do better, but there’s also no point in retaking the test if you’re just going to get roughly the same score. As a reminder, you can only take the test three times in any one-year period (this includes scores you cancel), so make sure you have a solid plan for how to improve prior to registering again. Additionally, you can only take the test seven total times over your lifetime.

GRE INTRODUCTION & SCORING

In addition to the LSAT, nearly all law schools now accept the Graduate Records Examinations (GRE) Test in lieu of the LSAT. The full list of law schools that currently accept the GRE is available here. The test is meant to “measure your verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, critical thinking and analytical writing skills — skills that have been developed over a long period of time and are not related to a specific field of study but are important for all.”

Three scores are reported on the GRE General Test: a Verbal Reasoning score reported on a 130–170 score scale, in 1-point increments a Quantitative Reasoning score reported on a 130–170 score scale, in 1-point increments an Analytical Writing score reported on a 0–6 score scale, in half-point increments. The reported scores are based on the number of correct responses to all the questions included in the operational sections of the measure. The average Verbal Reasoning Score is approximately 150 and the average Quantitative Reasoning Score is 153. An average writing score is 3.5. Below is a scale depicting percentiles for each scaled score. Since the GRE is a relatively new test for law school entry, generalizing a target score for veterans can be difficult. However, S2S recommends at least a Verbal Reasoning of 160 and Quantitative Reasoning of 160 for a T14 school.

GRE STRUCTURE

The overall testing time for the computer-delivered GRE® General Test is about three hours and 45 minutes. There are six sections with a 10-minute break following the third section. There are two verbal reasoning sections each consisting of 20 questions per section and 30 minutes per section. There are two quantitative reasoning sections each consisting of 20 questions per section and 35 minutes per section. Meanwhile the analytical writing section consists of one “analyze an issue” task and “an analyze an argument” task, consisting of 30 minutes per a task.

The Verbal Reasoning and Quantitative Reasoning measures are section-level adaptive. This means the computer selects the second operational section of a measure based on your performance on the first section. Within each section, all questions contribute equally to the final score. For each of the two measures, a raw score is computed. The raw score is the number of questions you answered correctly.

The raw score is converted to a scaled score through a process known as equating. The equating process accounts for minor variations in difficulty among the different test editions as well as the differences in difficulty introduced by the section-level adaptation.

For the Analytical Writing section, each essay receives a score from at least one trained rater, using a six-point holistic scale. In holistic scoring, raters are trained to assign scores on the basis of the overall quality of an essay in response to the assigned task. The essay is then scored by e-rater®, a computerized program developed by ETS that is capable of identifying essay features related to writing proficiency. If the human and the e-rater scores closely agree, the average of the two scores is used as the final score. If they disagree, a second human score is obtained, and the final score is the average of the two human scores.

VERBAL REASONING

The Verbal Reasoning section measures your ability to: “analyze and draw conclusions from discourse; reason from incomplete data; identify author's assumptions and/or perspective; understand multiple levels of meaning, such as literal, figurative and author's intent, detect important points; distinguish major from minor or irrelevant points; summarize text; understand the structure of a text understand the meanings of words, sentences and entire texts; understand relationships among words and among concepts.” These abilities are tested via reading comprehension, text completion, and sentence equivalence questions. A comprehensive list of question types can be found on the GRE website.

Sample Text Completion Question (from GRE Website):

It is refreshing to read a book about our planet by an author who does not allow facts to be (i)__________ by politics: well aware of the political disputes about the effects of human activities on climate and biodiversity, this author does not permit them to (ii)__________ his comprehensive description of what we know about our biosphere. He emphasizes the enormous gaps in our knowledge, the sparseness of our observations, and the (iii)__________, calling attention to the many aspects of planetary evolution that must be better understood before we can accurately diagnose the condition of our planet.

Answer and Explanation

The overall tone of the passage is clearly complimentary. To understand what the author of the book is being complimented on, it is useful to focus on the second blank. Here, we must determine what word would indicate something that the author is praised for not permitting. The only answer choice that fits the case is "obscure," since enhancing and underscoring are generally good things to do, not things one should refrain from doing. Choosing "obscure" clarifies the choice for the first blank; the only choice that fits well with "obscure" is "overshadowed." Notice that trying to fill the first blank before filling the second blank is hard — each choice has at least some initial plausibility. Since the third blank requires a phrase that matches "enormous gaps" and "sparseness of our observations," the best choice is "superficiality of our theories." Thus the correct answer is Choice A (overshadowed), Choice E (obscure) and Choice I (superficiality of our theories).

QUANTITATIVE REASONING

The Quantitative Reasoning section of the GRE® General Test assesses your: basic mathematical skills

understanding of elementary mathematical concepts ability to reason quantitatively and to model and solve problems with quantitative methods. The section primarily tests four content areas: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and data analysis. The content in these areas includes high school mathematics and statistics at a level that is generally no higher than a second course in algebra; it does not include trigonometry, calculus or other higher-level mathematics. A thorough list of the topics tested on the Quantitative Reasoning section can be found here.

Sample Multiple Choice Question (from GRE Website):

Answer and Explanation

You can see that all five choices are linear functions whose graphs are lines with various slopes and y-intercepts. The graph of Choice A is a line with slope 1 and y-intercept Negative 2 shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 is the same as figure 5 except that the graph of the line with slope 1 and y intercept negative 2 has been added. The line slants upward as you go from left to right and intersects the x axis at 2. The line is below the graph of y equals f of x.

It is clear that this line will not intersect the graph of f to the left of the y-axis. To the right of the y-axis, the graph of f is a line with slope 2, which is greater than slope 1. Consequently, as the value of x increases, the value of y increases faster for f than for g, and therefore the graphs do not intersect to the right of the y-axis. Choice B is similarly ruled out. Note that if the y-intercept of either of the lines in Choices A and B were greater than or equal to 4 instead of less than 4, they would intersect the graph of f.

Choices C and D are lines with slope 2 and y-intercepts less than 4. Hence, they are parallel to the graph of f (to the right of the y-axis) and therefore will not intersect it. Any line with a slope greater than 2 and a y-intercept less than 4, like the line in Choice E, will intersect the graph of f (to the right of the y-axis). The correct answer is Choice E, g of x = 3x minus 2.

ANALYTICAL WRITING

The Analytical Writing measure tests your critical thinking and analytical writing skills. It assesses your ability to articulate and support complex ideas, construct and evaluate arguments, and sustain a focused and coherent discussion. It does not assess specific content knowledge.

The Analytical Writing measure consists of two separately timed analytical writing tasks:

a 30-minute "Analyze an Issue" task

a 30-minute "Analyze an Argument" task

The entire list of possible prompts for an issue or argument task can be found on the GRE website.

CANCELING A SCORE AND MULTIPLE SCORES

The GRE has “score select” which means you can take a GRE test once now, or again in the future, and only send the GRE test scores from whichever test date(s) you want schools to see. Scores are good for five years. On test day, after viewing your scores at the test center, you can choose not to send your scores at this time OR you can select either option below for each of your four FREE score reports:

Most Recent — Send your scores from your current test administration.

All — Send your scores from all GRE® General Test administrations in the last five years.

After test day, you can send score reports for a fee and select from these options for each report you'd like to send:

Most Recent — Send your scores from your most recent test administration.

All — Send your scores from all test administrations in the last five years.

Any — Send your scores from one OR as many test administrations as you like from the last five years.

However, while some schools may evaluate you on your highest GRE score at their discretion, the majority of T14 schools ask to see all GRE scores, which decreases the utility of the score select option. Moreover, if you already have an LSAT on record, your GRE may have limited utility as your LSAT score will already be automatically submitted to LSAC when you submit your applications.

LSAT VS. GRE

Ultimately, you should take whichever test you feel more comfortable with and yields better results for you. We recommend taking both a diagnostic LSAT test and a diagnostic GRE test – if you perform appreciably better on either test in terms of scaled score, then you should move forward with preparation for that test. The official stance at the majority schools is that there is no preference between the LSAT and the GRE.

The full list of GRE admit data by school can be found via 7Sage. Admittedly, it is also vital to consider the percentage of GRE-only applicants who were admitted, because the LSAT is also more pervasive among law school applicants.

There is also an ETS calculator to convert a GRE to LSAT scores; these convertors are not perfect but should provide a rough ball park estimate of your performance across testing platforms.